Beginnings of Writing: CuneiformIn Mesopotamia, during the Uruk Period (3500 – 3100 BCE), many villages became cities. As they expanded, each new city had to reorganize to better govern and support their burgeoning populations. Out of this development came agriculture, trade, and writing.
In Sumer (3100- 2800 BCE), cities were organized around temples. The “
en” (the economic official of the temple) kept track of the offerings and wealth. To keep inventory, an en had his “
sangu” (accountants) survey everything. Since Sumer is located in an area of “clay muck”, the Sumerian accountants made clay figures for tallying. But, when the volume of goods became great, these figures became cumbersome to use. Then, the accountants started marking items on clay tablets. Because they were using wet clay, various scribes used a stylus which made wedge-shaped markings (cuneiform) in the clay.
Because Sumer had little in natural resources, many citizens focused on manufacturing finished goods. Their merchants developed trading organizations (“
Karums”) to govern trade in raw and finished materials. Because of the Karums, Sumerian trade expanded from Mesopotamia to Egypt and Syria.
Adopting the inventory methods of the temples, merchants started using various tally symbols for items. Since, they needed to convey the concepts of orders, sales, and general merchandising issues, many scribes started using pictograms. These pictograms could then be combined to convey meaning. Merchants were able to convey crude messages over time and distance.
Because Sumerian was a monosyllabic language, their scribes could convey any meaning by using pictograms as ideograms. Since Sumerian was rich in homonyms and homophones, they could have a pictogram represent a sound (phonogram), an object, or an idea. By using sounds as puns, Sumerian scribes expanded their writing vocabulary. They grouped symbols together to convey various concepts.
Later, Sumerian writing was adopted by the Akkadians and Elamites. Since their languages were radically different from Sumerian, these peoples needed to differentiate the meanings of each of the Sumerian symbols. Determinations (additions and modifications) were added to indicate parts of speech. Cuneiform was developed into a working alphabet.
Notes:1.
Homophones: Words with the same sounds but different meanings and spellings.
Example: Pear and pair. A
pair of
pears is two pieces of fruit.
2.
Homonym: Words with the same sound and spellings but different meanings.
Example: Fair and fair. Because the weather is
fair, we are going to the county
fair.
3. Please note that regional accents will change what are homonyms and homophones. In New England,
aunt and
ant are pronounced differently, while
route and
root are said in the same way.
Works CitedGascoigne, Bamber, “History of Writing”, The International History Project, 2009, 13 July 2009, < http://www.historyworld.net/ >.
Guisepi, R. A, “History of Writing”, International World History Project, 2007, 13 July 2009, < http://www.history-world.org/ >.
Harl, Kenneth, Origins of Great Ancient Civilizations, lectures, The Teaching Company, 2006.
Robinson, Andrew, The Story of Writing, Thames and Hudson, London, 1995.
_____, “Cuneiform Writing”, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology, 15 July 2009, < http://www.upenn.edu/museum/Games/cuneiform.html >.
Picture courtesy of University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology.Copyright: Virginia Carper, 2009
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