Observations on American Indian Beliefs

Lakota hide count

Although American Indian cultures are often presented as homogeneous, they are not. For example, Coyote is usually presented as The Trickster who teaches harsh lessons to people. However, different cultures have other Tricksters who serve various purposes.

 For the Lakota, the Heyoka is their Sacred Trickster. If a person dreamed of the Thunder Beings, then it was thought that they were chosen by the Wakan Tanka (Great Mystery) to be the sacred clowns of the people. The Heyoka possesses such sacred energy that they can turn things upside down and backwards. The duty of the Heyoka is to speak the truth and shake up people’s perceptions through laughter. 

Meanwhile for the Chinook of the Northwest, Blue Jay is the Trickster. He is helpful but foolish at the same time. For the Mi’kmaq of New England, Rabbit and Otter are light-hearted beings who entertain people. 

Beside Tricksters, Culture Heroes are also included in several belief systems of various tribes. Glooscap of the Wabenaki (New England) is their Transformer. One thing He did was to change the landscape to be kind to the people. When the White People came, Glooscap left but promised to return when the Wabenaki needed Him. In contrast, Shikla of Northwest Coast is more focused on bringing balance to the world. He is less involved with the affairs of humans.

 Some Nations had prophets similar to the Abrahamic religions. One was Handsome Lake of the Seneca, who received visions in 1799.  His teachings became the Longhouse Religion of the Iroquois, which is also known as Gaihwi:io – God’s Message, or the Code of Handsome Lake. This Code was in response to the on-going wars and pressures by the British and Americans on his people in the 1700s. Some of the tenets of the Longhouse Religion have elements of the Abrahamic faiths such as the focus on sins. For example, whiskey, witchcraft, love magic, and abortion are considered evil. During the Midwinter Thanksgiving Ceremony, a white dog (or a non-living stand-in) is sacrificed to convey the sins of the people to the sky. Afterwards, tobacco is offered to the Creator to sustain the order of the world.

Discovering these differences in the beliefs of the various Nations demonstrates to me that there is no monolithic faith of American Indians. Many people have the tendency to distill various elements of the differing faiths into a “universal religion” consisting of the Great Spirit, Medicine Wheels, Totems, etc. As a Roman Polytheist, I have experienced this impulse of outsiders to the religion. Roman Gods are not Greek Gods with Latin names. Understanding how outsiders can lump things together helps me tolerate mistakes people make about Roman Gods. It helps me to teach people in a kind manner what the differences are and why they matter. Faith is rooted in the people who practice it, and in their perceptions.

 Works Used:

Favell, Ian, “The Code of Handsome Lake,” Overview of World’s Religions. Web. http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/nam/handsome.htm.
 Native American Spirituality, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. Web. http://www.religioustolerance.org/nataspir.htm
 Native Languages of the Americas: Native Cultures. Web. 2015. http://www.native-languages.org/home.htm
 North American Religions, Overview of World’s Religions. Web. http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/nam/index.htmlhttp://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/nam/index.html
 Wambli Sina Win, “The Thunderbird’s Echo,” Native American Times. Web. 21, June 2011. http://www.nativetimes.com/index.php/life/commentary/5574-wambli-sina-win-the-thunderbirds-echo

Archetypes in Myths: Native American and Mongolian: Landscapes

 Crater Lake (Native American)

Read Myth at Legends Surrounding Crater Lake (new window) 

This myth details how Crater Lake in North America was formed from a volcano. (It is a geo-myth, since it explains how a landscape was formed.) The protagonist, the Chief of the Below Word is the Earth deity, As the Lover, He is spurned by Loha, a mortal woman. Becoming the Destroyer, He lays waste to the land. Loha is the Maiden, who refused his advances. Meanwhile, the Chief of the Above World, the Sky deity, is also the Caretaker who stops the Chief of the Below World. The two medicine people of Loha’s village become the Martyrs, in hopes of stopping the destruction. Their sacrifice inspires the Chief of the Above Sky to defeat his opponent.

Fire and Flood (Mongolian)

Read "Hunter Boy" at Mongol Mythology (new window) 

This geo-myth describes the creation of a certain stone landscape in Mongolia. Halibilu, the Hero, saves his people from a great flood. But in doing so, he becomes stone. Besides being the Hero, Halibilu is also the Caretaker, who provides for his people and saves the Dragon King’s daughter. In trying to save his people, Halibilu became the Martyr, sacrificing himself. (Meanwhile, the Daughter of the Dragon King, is the Damsel in Distress, while the Dragon King is both the Dragon and Ruler.)

Ethics for Magical People: Cultural Appropriation or Cultural Appreciation (3 of 3) Sources

Works Used:

Aldred, Lisa, “Plastic Shamans and Astroturf Sun Dances: New Age Commercialization of Native American Spirituality,” The American Indian Quarterly, 24:3, 2000,

http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/american_indian_quarterly/v024/24.3aldred.html.

Bennett, Stella, “The Star That Never Walks Around,” Weiser Books, Boston, 2002.

Cole, Joan, “Pseudo Native American Tarot Decks: A Picture is Worth 1000 Words,” 2004, http://www.lelandra.com/comptarot/tarotindian.htm.

Cormack, Bridget, “The ethics of cultural borrowing,” The Australian, 18 December 2012, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/visual-arts/the-ethics-of-cultural-borrowing/story-fn9d3avm-1226538593187.

Donaldson, Laura, “On Medicine Women and White Same-ans: New Age Native Americanism and Commodity Fetishism as Pop Culture Feminism,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 24: 3, 1999, www.jstor.org/stable/3175322.

DenElder, “The Star That New Walks Around by Stella Bennett,” Blog, 12 March 2013, http://denelder.blogspot.com/2013/03/the-star-that-never-walks-around-by.html.

Dominquez, Jr, Ivo, “Source Struggle,” Witches and Pagans, 12 Mar 2013, http://witchesandpagans.com/EasyBlog/source-struggle.html.

Fontana, David, “The Essential Guide to the Tarot,” Watkins Publishing: London, 2011.

Green, Heather, “The Hula Dance: From Sacred to Commodity,” The Wild Hunt Blog, 23 June 2013, http://wildhunt.org/2013/06/the-hula-dance-from-sacred-to-commodity.html.

Paganaidd, “Cultural appropriation?,” Blog, 12 March 2013, http://paganaiddsblog.blogspot.com/2013/03/cultural-appropriation.html.

Stallings, Ariel, “Liberal bullying: Privilege-checking and semantics-scolding as internet sport,” Off Beat Empire, 15 October 2012, http://offbeatempire.com/2012/10/liberal-bullying.

Young, James and Conrad Bunk, “The Ethics of Cultural Appropriation,” John Wiley: New York, 2011.

Young James, “Profound Offense and Cultural Appropriation,” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 63: 2, 2005, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0021-8529.2005.00190.x/full.

Ethics for Magical People: Cultural Appropriation or Cultural Appreciation (2 of 3)

To resolve my dilemma, I needed to know how “cultural appropriation” was defined. Noted art historian and critic, James O. Young observed that as cultures intertwine, their cultural motifs overlap. But he warned that using another culture’s motifs in art “carries with it certain responsibilities.” For example, Paul Simon often used the motifs of African cultures in his music. Since he approached the act of composing music with respect, Simon kept the authentic voices of the Africans intact. For that reason, people do not consider him a cultural appropriator.

            Young concluded, “I urge everyone to avoid making blanket pronouncements about cultural appropriation. As we have seen, cultural appropriation has many forms. Some examples of certain forms are certainly immoral. At the same time, many examples of all forms of cultural appropriation are morally unobjectionable. … Cultural appropriation is sometimes to be condemned but equally to be avoided is a restriction of artists to their cultural homelands.”

            Since many Neo-Pagans integrate the beliefs of various cultures into their practices, Patti Wigington, in “About.Com Paganism/Wicca,” addresses the issue of cultural appropriation. She states, “If you are incorporating a practice into your belief system, ask yourself whether you’re doing it because you’re truly called to do so, or whether you simply saw it in a book and thought it looked appealing. Carefully evaluate the practices you borrow, and make sure if you choose to use them, that you do so with respect and reverence towards their original owners.”

            In regards to Native American cultures, Laura Donaldson (Cherokee) believes that cultural appropriation “strips [them] of any historical specificity of contextual depth and interprets them with a colonial logic of cultural commensurability.” Vine Deloria Jr. (Lakota) adds, “It’s about what white people think Indians should be.” Others include in their commentaries that careless people perpetuate the ‘noble savage’ stereotype, lump diverse cultures together, or imply that Native Americans existed only in the 19^th Century.”

            In her review of “Oracle of Shadows and Light” (Lucy Cavendish & Jasmine Becket-Griffith, 2010), Cat discusses the misuse of cultures in this deck. Kali, the Hindu Goddess of Destruction is displayed as a soulful-eyed being who takes bad things away. Meanwhile Amara, the Menehune is a stereotype of a Native Hawai’i an – soulful-eyed long haired girl, who wears flowers. Since this deck does not provide any cultural context, Cat wonders how Hawai’ians or Indians would react to these skewed depictions of their respective cultures. Moreover, she asserts that the authentic voices of these cultures (and others) are distorted and overwhelmed by “cuteness.”

            In my examination of “The Star that Never Walks Around,” I considered the following. (1) Did the deck portray the dignity of the Plains Cultures of the Native Americans? (2) Were the images of a particular stereotype? (3) Were the images taken out of context to be used for various Tarot meanings?  (4) Does the authentic voice of the Tarot come through?

What bothers me about this deck is how Bennett mixes the Tarot, Astrology, and Native American cultures. For example, “The Tower (XVI)” of the Major Arcana is represented by the Sun Dance, a sacred ceremony of the Lakota peoples. She writes that “The Tower (XVI)” is a “breaking down of Karmic ties,” The message of this card is “Liberating yourself from old ways and old belief systems will provide the path to a higher place within your spirit.” This is troubling to me since it takes a sacred ceremony out of its cultural context. The Sun Dance has a superficial commonality with “The Tower (XVI),” but is contextually different. The Sun Dance is a personal sacrifice for the welfare of the community. Since “The Tower (XVI)” represents an outside catalyst to instigate change for the individual, the Sun Dance is not appropriate for this card.

            A culture can express unique viewpoints of the Tarot, and not be shoehorned into the standard card meanings. I would prefer seeing how the “The Tower (XVI)” is expressed in Native American cultures than fitting those cultures into the “The Tower (XVI).” This is a subtle but important distinction. Unfortunately Bennett removes the original context of the Sun Dance and forces it into an artificial one. This ceremony sanctifies personal sacrifice for the sake of community, and is not “a breaking down of Karmic ties.”         

            Although Astrology and the Tarot are a natural combination, Native American cultures are not. Bennett’s explicit association of Astrology with the Major Arcana Cards implies that Native Americans practiced this form of divination. She makes the logical fallacy that since Native Americans watch the stars, they are astrologers.

Bennett tried to share two important parts of her life. However, she seemed to use Native American cultures to “fill in the blanks” for the Tarot. Rather than depict the various Native American cultures of Montana, she lumps them into one homogeneous group. In the process, she also skews the meaning of the Tarot cards as well. Bennett equates the “Royal Road” of the Tarot to be “Trail to Wisdom” in Native American cultures. This is a subtle form of stereotyping, since it assumes that Native Americans today are the same as those of the 19^th Century.

I find that Stella Bennett’s good intentions are not enough. In my opinion, she violated both the dignity of the Tarot and Native American cultures.  Based on my review, I decided that the ethical thing for me to do is to shelve this deck.

Ethics for Magical People: Cultural Appropriation or Appreciation (1 of 3)

One aspect of the Tarot that I enjoy is how elastic it is. Although the Tarot is a construct of the Western Mystery Tradition, many Tarotists can devise fanciful decks based on themes ranging from baseball to zombies. There are even decks that feature multiple themes such as stories of dragons from African, Chinese, European, and Meso-American cultures. This diversity of decks allows for the deeper exploration of divination by the Tarot.         

One of my favorite decks is Stella Bennett’s “The Star That Never Walks Around.” This dedicated Tarotist created a deck combining her Native American heritage and her vision of the Tarot as the “Guide to Wisdom.” (Her grandmother was of the Turtle Mountain Band of the Chippewa Indians.) Her title for the deck, “The Star That Never Walks Around” reflects both. (It is the Native Americans’ name for the Polar Star (Polaris).)

Demonstrating her extensive knowledge of the Tarot, Bennett includes its astrological aspects in her cards. For the Court Cards, she pairs each with their Sign. The “Knight of Turtles (Pentacles)” is Capricorn, while the “Queen of Butterflies (Swords)” is Virgo. In the Minor Arcana, she matches the suits’ elements with their respective Zodiac Signs. Bennett writes for the “Three of Thunderbirds (Wands, element of fire):” “Our warrior offers assistance, help, and strength to the ram in distress. The ram represented by the Zodiac Sign Aries and can be headstrong.”

Bennett wrote that designing this deck was a spiritual experience for her. By drawing the cards herself, Bennett could explore the Native American cultures of the Plains, where she lived, more deeply. Each card depicted Native American ceremonies and beliefs. She included ordinary events, since they also carried a message from the Spirits. An example of this was the “Death Card (XIII)” of the Major Arcana. It showed the graves of the men from Custer’s Last Stand next to a platform Indian burial. Bennett wrote, “This card represents the death of the old human spirit and the rebirth of the new spirit of the Grandfathers.”

            Bennett’s infusion of the Tarot with Native American cultures was something that I enjoyed. Whenever I used the deck for readings, I would discover new meanings in her cards. She expanded my knowledge of the Tarot.

However, I felt uneasy in using this deck, since I read that Native Americans objected to their portrayal in various media. Also, they complained that their cultures were being mined for commercial, Neo-Pagan, or New Age uses. For me, the crux of the issue became where on the “continuum between celebrating culture diversity and cultural appropriation” laid Bennett’s deck? The answer would determine if I should continue to use this deck.

Tarot: "The Star That Never Walks Around"

The Star That Never Walks Around
by Stella Bennett

This deck takes its name from the Lakota (Sioux) name for Polaris, the North Star, which is the Star That Never Walks Around. The Plains Indian People regarded the North Star as the healer and guide of all the stars and humans. According to the Lakota People, this star watches over all the stars and people from its fixed position at all times. With this tarot deck, you are guided by the Star That Never Walks Around.

The round cards add depth to a reading. The turning of the cards tells you what phase of the Moon they are in, the seasons of the year, and the Four Directions of the Medicine Wheel. A card facing left is in the waxing part of the moon, which means its message is gaining strength. Left is also the West, where the sun sets, and the season of the fall. This means the influence of the card will be more in the fall of the year in a Birthday Spread.

The High Priestess:

The High Priestess stands in the reflection of the waxing Moon, which brings new things to light and reveals that which has been hidden. In her right hand, she holds the Moon's energies, bringing her intuitive and psychic abilities to light. With her left hand, she gives the stars to those who are willing and open to receive them. The High Priestess seeks her light from within, and relies on her intuitive nature.

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Copyright: Virginia Carper, 2009

Raccoon (2 of 2)

Many Native Americans held a deep regard for Raccoon since She also was connected to magic. The Aztecs call Female Raccoon, see-oh-at la-ma kas-kay (Cioatlamacasque), “She who talks with the Gods”. If She had cubs, they called her, ee-yah-mah-tohn, “the little old one who knows things”. Because Raccoons handle everything, the Aztecs referred to Male Raccoon as mapachitli, “One who takes everything in his hands“.

Raccoon aptly displays how curiosity can enhance your life. She is always picking things up to examine them. Because of her curiosity, Raccoon builds up her problem solving skills. By being curious, She seizes opportunities and becomes more successful at what She does.

Teachings of Raccoon Include:

“If you get lost in the woods or out in Nature, just ask the Raccoon to help. He likes helping people.” Copyright: “Spirits of the Earth”, Bobby Lake-Thom.

“A superior teacher, Raccoon counsels us to gain experience, to cherish curiosity, and investigate to gain knowledge as well as information.” Copyright: “Wolf Song”, Jeanette Spencer and Lew Hartman.

Wisdom of Raccoon Includes:
Embrace Magic in Your Life
Wise Use of Intelligence
Having a Sense of Touch

Science Note:
1. Raccoons are one of four major animals in the wild that carry rabies. (bat, fox, and skunk are the others.)
2. Because Raccoons host the roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis), do not handle them or their droppings without washing your hands afterwards.

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Copyright: Virginia Carper, Animal Teachers, 2008

From Universal Class, fun self-paced classes taught by me:

Finding Your Animal Teachers

Animals For Everyone: Mammals

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Raccoon: Be Curious (1 of 2)

With her striped tail and black mask, Raccoon is well known to many people. Curious and clever, She tips over people’s garbage cans looking for food, usually leaving a mess. Because She can thrive where people live, Raccoon is a synathrope, an animal that can live off people.

Denning in trees, Raccoon is at home in the forests. She feeds along the waterways, hunting as She swims. What people think is Raccoon washing her food is actually a form of hunting. All She needs is water to help Her find her food by touch.

Known for her resourcefulness, Raccoon is a good problem solver. Because of her good memory, She can open complex latches without much practice. Scientists believe that Raccoon can come up with innovative ideas when faced with a conundrum. Called arakumen, by the Algonquin Indians, Raccoon, “the little hand scratcher”, picks up things in her hands to examine them by feeling.

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Copyright: Virginia Carper, Animal Teachers, 2008

From Universal Class, fun self-paced classes taught by me:

Finding Your Animal Teachers

Animals For Everyone: Mammals

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Reindeer: Travel

CARIBOU ! REINDEER: Travel

Of all the members of the Deer Family, Caribou shows the greatest adaptation to life in the Arctic. To carry Him over deep snow, Caribou has the widest feet of any Deer. With his Herd, Caribou migrates long distances during each season. He goes to windy plains in the summer to escape the Flies. In the winter, his Herd goes to the tundra. There, Mother Caribou gives birth with little threat from Wolves.

In Lapland and Russia, people domesticated Caribou to provide transportation, food, and clothing. First herded by people over 3000 years ago, Reindeer (domesticated Caribou) is the most northern of Domestic Animals. As beasts of burden and providers of milk, Reindeer remains a pivotal element in the culture of the Sami (Lapps of Finland).

Gregarious, Caribou joins with thousands of other Caribou to wander long distances. His Herd moves quickly to summer and winter grounds. Each time, They follow the same pathways, wearing grooves in the landscape. Using traditional routes, Caribou ford and swim great rivers.

Caribou encourages travel. He shows that being a nomad can be a good thing. Methodical in his travels, Caribou moves from favorite place to another, never overstaying his welcome.

Caribou! Reindeer’s Teachings Also Include:

“Caribou take care of their feet because they are walking people. The Creator’s message to caribou is that it is to be main source of Dene (Dogrib). Meat must be shared because Caribou is a spiritual gift that must not be used for personal gain.” Copyright: Dene Kede Education: A Dene Perspective.

Caribou ! Reindeer’s Wisdom Includes:
Being a Wandering Soul
Creating Pathway Through the Wilderness
Learning Social Skills
Going Where You Want To
Living A Traditional Life


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Copyright: Virginia Carper, Animal Teachers, 2008

From Universal Class, fun self-paced classes taught by me:

Finding Your Animal Teachers

Animals For Everyone: Mammals

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Saging or Smudging

(Sage by Maryann Sterling)

The smudging ceremony is a sacred ritual for Native Americans and for other peoples. It is a ritual of cleaning and purification. Indian People burn tobacco, cedar, sage, and sweetgrass in offerings to the Four Directions. The Journey of Life begins in the East and ends in the North. By offering to the Four Directions, the person opens themselves to guidance and wisdom from the Spirit.

“Smudging” which is the burning of sacred plants is a time honored method for healing. People bath themselves in the smoke of the burning herbs. Sage, one of the sacred plants, drives out the negative energy. Sweetgrass helps brings in the positive energy. Smudging helps to restore the person to spiritual health.

Often, people will burn tobacco or sweetgrass as offerings to the various spirits – plant, stone, animal, and earth. The smoke purifies people, their homes, and sacred things. Smudging is a method of inviting the spirit to come and be with you.

I smudge often my home to make an offering, and to purify the room. I keep the sage in a medicine pouch. When I am ready to burn it, I place the sage in an abalone shell. After getting the fire going, I fan the embers with a feather to spread the smoke. I leave a window cracked open to allow the spirits to leave. I sage the room, starting in the East, moving South, West, North, and East again.

Smudging can be done by anyone. All you need a fireproof bowl and sage. Light the sage and fan the smoking embers. Let the smoke drift over you and feel yourself opening up to the Spirit.

Please do not gather the sage, sweetgrass, tobacco, or cedar yourself. These plants are regulated under various laws, and can be only harvested by selected groups such as Native Americans.

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Resource: “Sacred Sage, How It Heals” by Wendy Whiteman. (Purchase from Amazon.com, along with sage supplies.)

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Copyright: Virginia Carper, Animal Teachers, 2008

Other Worldly Beings: Old Souls

When I watched “SMOKE SIGNALS” (1998, Eyre), I perceived the two main characters, Victor Joseph and Thomas Brings-the-Fire, to be a split soul. Rarely apart, they guide each other towards wholeness. Victor brings Thomas into the present, while Thomas teaches Victor the way of the Worlds.

Wearing a suit and his hair in braids, Thomas resembles a medicine man from the last century. Known in the Coeur d’Alene Nation as an eccentric storyteller, Thomas lives his life by his own compass. He fears neither lies nor the truth. Weaving the past, present, and future in his stories, Thomas offers wisdom to those around him. As an old soul, Thomas delivers his pearls of wisdom with good humor. “Sometimes it is a good day to die. Sometimes it is a good day to have breakfast.”

Thomas, for his part, regards Victor’s father, Arnold, to be his teacher, he tells about going on a vision quest and encountering Arnold instead. In Thomas’s stories, Arnold emerges as a Shaman working magic and illusions. He hides in plain sight, and practices disappearing. Through Suzy Song, Arnold’s neighbor in Phoenix, Victor discovers that his father was an old soul who made a tragic mistake. Because his pain was so great, Arnold slowly let go of all his connections to this world. However, after his death, he returns to his son in a vision.

Medicine Wheels (1)

I have found Medicine Wheels to be a name totally associated with Native Americans. I wish there was a different name to call these circles of the univese.

Medicine Wheels are places to pray, meditate, contemplate and become one with the universe. They become our sacred place, helping us to strengthen our connection to the universe. They help us bridge the gap between the spirit world and the physical world, bringing harmony to both through us. The general Medicine Wheel has 36 (thirty six) stones. Each stone is a “tool” to help us understand ourselves in relation to the universe. They teach us to respect ourselves and our relation to other life forms, Mother Earth, and the universe.

Creating a Medicine Wheel should be done as a part of a sacred ceremony to show your respect. Ceremony is a way of giving back some of the energy, that we are constantly taking in from the universe. Through Ceremony we can give back through singing, praying, dancing, drumming, chanting . Follow your intuition and your heart to give back in the way resonates with you. Ceremony and the use of the Medicine Wheel is an individual journey. There is no one size fits all spirituality. We each have our own way, and all of our ways work together to make up the whole.

There are many ways to make a Medicine Wheel. They can be made with 12-36 (twelve to thirty six) stones depending on how elaborate you wish to make it as well as how much space you have to work with. The only important thing is that your Medicine Wheel takes the shape of a circle. It is your sacred space so it should be comfortable for you. It holds your vision, whatever that may be.


From “Ma’Heo’o Reiki: A Program of Spiritual Healing, Growth & Development” by Sheryl “Rain” Carter.